
## 2. Events and Random Variables

The purpose of this section is to study two basic types of objects that form part of the model of a random experiment.

### Sample Spaces and Events

#### Sample Spaces

The sample space of a random experiment is a set $$S$$ that includes all possible outcomes of the experiment; the sample space plays the role of the universal set when modeling the experiment. For simple experiments, the sample space may be precisely the set of possible outcomes. More often, for complex experiments, the sample space is a mathematically convenient set that includes the possible outcomes and perhaps other elements as well. For example, if the experiment is to throw a standard die and record the outcome, the sample space is $$S = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}$$, the set of possible outcomes. On the other hand, if the experiment is to capture a cicada and measure its body weight (in milligrams), we might conveniently take the sample space to be $$S = [0, \infty)$$, even though most elements of this set are practically impossible (we hope!).

Often the outcome of a random experiment consists of one or more real measurements, and thus, the sample space consists of all possible measurement sequences. Thus, in many cases, the sample space of a random experiment is a subset of $$\R^n$$ for some $$n \in \N_+$$.

If we have $$n$$ experiments with sample spaces $$S_1, S_2, \ldots, S_n$$, then the Cartesian product $$S_1 \times S_2 \times \cdots \times S_n$$ is the natural sample space for the compound experiment that consists of performing the $$n$$ experiments in sequence. In particular, if we have a basic experiment with sample space $$S$$, then $$S^n$$ is the natural sample space for the compound experiment that consists of $$n$$ replications of the basic experiment. Similarly, if we have an infinite sequence of experiments with sample spaces $$(S_1, S_2, \ldots)$$ then $$S_1 \times S_2 \times \cdots$$ is the natural sample space for the compound experiment that consists of performing the given experiments in sequence. In particular, the sample space for the compound experiment that consists of indefinite replications of a basic experiment is $$S^\infty = S \times S \times \cdots$$. This is an essential special case, because (classical) probability theory is based on the idea of replicating a given experiment.

#### Events

Certain subsets of the sample space of an experiment are referred to as events. Thus, an event is a set of outcomes of the experiment. Each time the experiment is run, a given event $$A$$ either occurs, if the outcome of the experiment is an element of $$A$$, or does not occur, if the outcome of the experiment is not an element of $$A$$. Intuitively, you should think of an event as a meaningful statement about the experiment.

In the section on Measure Theory, we discuss some technical conditions that must be imposed on the collection of events. These need not concern you if you are new to the study of probability; we will simply assume that all subsets of the sample space that we mention are valid events.

In particular, the sample space $$S$$ itself is an event; by definition it always occurs. At the other extreme, the empty set $$\emptyset$$ is also an event; by definition it never occurs.

#### The Algebra of Events

The standard algebra of sets leads to a grammar for discussing random experiments and allows us to construct new events from given events. In the following exercises, suppose that $$A$$ and $$B$$ are events.

$$A \subseteq B$$ if and only if the occurrence of $$A$$ implies the occurrence of $$B$$.

$$A \cup B$$ is the event that occurs if and only if $$A$$ occurs or $$B$$ occurs.

$$A \cap B$$ is the event that occurs if and only if $$A$$ occurs and $$B$$ occurs.

$$A$$ and $$B$$ are disjoint if and only if they are mutually exclusive; they cannot both occur on the same run of the experiment.

$$A \setminus B$$ is the event that occurs if and only if $$A$$ occurs and $$B$$ does not occur.

$$A^c$$ is the event that occurs if and only if $$A$$ does not occur.

$$(A \cap B^c) \cup (B \cap A^c)$$ is the event that occurs if and only if one but not both of the given events occurs. Recall that this event is the symmetric difference of $$A$$ and $$B$$, and is somtimes denoted $$A \Delta B$$.

$$(A \cap B) \cup (A^c \cap B^c)$$ is the event that occurs if and only if both or neither of the given events occurs.

In the Venn diagram applet, observe the diagram of each of the 16 events that can be constructed from $$A$$ and $$B$$.

Suppose now that $$\mathscr{A} = \{A_i: i \in I\}$$ is a collection of events for the random experiment, where $$I$$ is a countable index set.

$$\bigcup \mathscr{A} = \bigcup_{i \in I} A_i$$ is the event that occurs if and only if at least one event in the collection occurs.

$$\bigcap \mathscr{A} = \bigcap_{i \in I} A_i$$ is the event that occurs if and only if every event in the collection occurs:

$$\mathscr{A}$$ is a pairwise disjoint collection if and only if the events are mutually exclusive; at most one of the events could occur on a given run of the experiment.

Suppose now that $$(A_1, A_2, \ldots$$) is a countably infinite sequence of events.

$$\bigcap_{n=1}^\infty \bigcup_{i=n}^\infty A_i$$ is the event that occurs if and only if infinitely many of the given events occur. This event is sometimes called the limit superior of $$(A_1, A_2, \ldots)$$.

$$\bigcup_{n=1}^\infty \bigcap_{i=n}^\infty A_i$$ is the event that occurs if and only if all but finitely many of the given events occur. This event is sometimes called the limit inferior of $$(A_1, A_2, \ldots)$$.

Limit superiors and inferiors are discussed in more detail in the section on convergence.

### Random Variables

Suppose again that we have a random experiment with sample space $$S$$. A function $$X$$ from $$S$$ into another set $$T$$ is called a ($$T$$-valued) random variable. Probability has its own notation, very different from other branches of mathematics. As a case in point, random variables are usually denoted by capital letters near the end of the alphabet.

In the section on Measure Theory, we will discuss a technical condition that must be imposed on random variables (and functions generally). These need not concern you if you are new to the study of probability; we will simply assume that all functions we mention are admissible.

Intuitively, you should think of a random variable $$X$$ as a measurement of interest in the context of the random experiment. A random variable $$X$$ is random in the sense that its value depends on the outcome of the experiment, which cannot be predicted with certainty before the experiment is run. Each time the experiment is run, an outcome $$s \in S$$ occurs, and a given random variable $$X$$ takes on the value $$X(s)$$. In general, as you will see, the notation of probability suppresses references to the sample space. Indeed, sometimes the sample space is hidden in the sense that we don't know what it is.

Often, a random variable takes values in a subset $$T$$ of $$\R^k$$ for some $$k \in \N_+$$. If then we write $$\bs{X} = (X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_k)$$ where $$X_i$$ is a real-valued random variable for each $$i$$. In this case, we usually refer to $$\bs{X}$$ as a random vector, to emphasize its higher-dimensional character. A random variable can have an even more complicated structure. For example, if the experiment is to select $$n$$ objects from a population and record various real measurements for each object, then the outcome of the experiment is a vector of vectors: $$\bs{X} = (X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_k)$$ where $$X_i$$ is the vector of measurements for the $$i$$th object. There are other possibilities; a random variable could be an infinite sequence, or could be set-valued. Specific examples are given in the computational exercises below. However, the important point is simply that a random variable is a function defined on the sample space $$S$$.

If $$X$$ is a random variable taking values in $$T$$, and $$B \subseteq T$$, then we use the more suggestive notation for the inverse image: $\{X \in B\} = \{s \in S: X(s) \in B\}$ Note that this is an event (a subset of $$S$$). In words, a statement about the random variable defines an event.

A special case of this notation is $$\{X = x\} = \{s \in S: X(s) = x\}$$ for $$x \in T$$. If $$X$$ is a real-valued then another special cases of our notation is $$\{ a \leq X \leq b\} = \{ X \in [a, b]\} = \{s \in S: a \leq X(s) \leq b\}$$. Of course, there are analogous results for other types of inequalities.

Suppose that $$X$$ is a random variable taking values in $$T$$, and that $$A$$ and $$B$$ are subsets of $$T$$. Then

1. $$\{X \in A \cup B\} = \{X \in A\} \cup \{X \in B\}$$
2. $$\{X \in A \cap B\} = \{X \in A\} \cap \{X \in B\}$$
3. $$\{X \in A \setminus B\} = \{X \in A\} \setminus \{X \in B\}$$
4. $$A \subseteq B \implies \{X \in A\} \subseteq \{X \in B\}$$
5. If $$A$$ and $$B$$ are disjoint, then so are $$\{X \in A\}$$ and $$\{X \in B\}$$.
Proof:

This is a restatement of the fact that inverse images of a function preserve the set operations; only the notation changes (and is simpler). For part (a), $$s \in \{X \in A \cup B\}$$ if and only if $$X(s) \in A \cup B$$ if and only if $$X(s) \in A$$ or $$X(s) \in B$$ if and only if $$s \in \{X \in A\}$$ or $$s \in \{X \in B\}$$ if and only if $$s \in \{X \in A\} \cup \{X \in B\}$$. The proof of (b) is exactly the same, with and replacing or. The proof of (c) is also the same, with but not replacing or. For part (d), if $$s \in \{X \in A\}$$ then $$X(s) \in A$$ so $$X(s) \in B$$ and hence $$s \in \{X \in B\}$$. Finally, part (e) follows from part (b).

As with a general function, the result in part (a) hold for the union of a countable collection of subsets, and the result in part (b) hold for the intersection of a countable collection of subsets. No new ideas are involved; only the notation is more complicated.

#### Basic and Derived Variables

Suppose again that we have a random experiment with sample space $$S$$. The outcome of the experiment itself can be thought of as a random variable. Specifically, let $$X$$ denote the identify function on $$S$$ so that $$X(s) = s$$ for $$s \in S$$. Then trivially $$X$$ is a random variable, and the events that can be defined in terms of $$X$$ are simply the original events of the experiment: $\{ X \in A\} = A, \quad A \subseteq S$ If $$Y$$ is another random variable for the experiment, taking values in a set $$T$$, then $$Y$$ is a function of $$X$$. That is, there is a function $$g$$ from $$S$$ into $$T$$ such that $$Y$$ is the composition of $$g$$ with $$X$$. We use the more descriptive notation $$g(X)$$ instead of $$g \circ X$$. Thus, $Y(s) = g\left[X(s)\right], \quad s \in S$ We could refer to $$X$$ as the outcome variable and $$Y$$ as a derived variable. In many problems of elementary probability theory, the basic object of interest is a random variable $$X$$. Whether $$X$$ is the basic outcome variable or a derived variable is often irrelevant.

#### Indicator Variables

For an event $$A$$, the indicator function of $$A$$ is called the indicator variable of $$A$$. The value of this random variables tells us whether or not $$A$$ has occurred: $\bs{1}_A = \begin{cases} 1, & A \text{ occurs} \\ 0, & A \text{ does not occur} \end{cases}$ That is, as a function on the sample space, $\bs{1}_A(s) = \begin{cases} 1, & s \in A \\ 0, & s \notin A \end{cases}$

If $$X$$ is a random variable that takes values 0 and 1, then $$X$$ is the indicator variable of the event $$\{X = 1\}$$.

Recall also that the set algebra of events translates into the arithmetic algebra of indicator variables.

Suppose that $$A$$ and $$B$$ are events.

1. $$\bs{1}_{A \cap B} = \bs{1}_A \bs{1}_B = \min\left\{\bs{1}_A, \bs{1}_B\right\}$$
2. $$\bs{1}_{A \cup B} = 1 - \left(1 - \bs{1}_A\right)\left(1 - \bs{1}_B\right) = \max\left\{\bs{1}_A, \bs{1}_B\right\}$$
3. $$\bs{1}_{B \setminus A} = \bs{1}_B \left(1 - \bs{1}_A\right)$$
4. $$\bs{1}_{A^c} = 1 - \bs{1}_A$$
5. $$A \subseteq B$$ if and only if $$\bs{1}_A \leq \bs{1}_B$$

The results in part (a) extends to arbitrary intersections and the results in part (b) extends to arbitrary unions.

### Examples and Applications

Recall that probability theory is often illustrated using simple devices from games of chance: coins, dice, cards, spinners, urns with balls, and so forth. Examples based on such devices are pedagogically valuable because of their simplicity and conceptual clarity. On the other hand, remember that probability is not only about gambling and games of chance. Rather, try to see problems involving coins, dice, etc. as metaphors for more complex and realistic problems.

#### Coins and Dice

The basic coin experiment consists of tossing a coin $$n$$ times and recording the sequence of scores $$(X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n)$$ (where 1 denotes heads and 0 denotes tails). This experiment is a generic example of $$n$$ Bernoulli trials, named for Jacob Bernoulli.

Consider the coin experiment with $$n = 4$$, and Let $$Y$$ denote the number of heads.

1. Give the sample space $$S$$ in list form.
2. Give the event $$\{Y = k\}$$ in list form for each $$k \in \{0, 1, 2, 3, 4\}$$.
1. $$S = \{1111, 1110, 1101, 1011, 0111, 1100, 1010, 1001, 0110, 0101, 0011, 1000, 0100, 0010, 0001, 0000\}$$
2. \begin{align} \{Y = 0\} & = \{0000\} \\ \{Y = 1\} & = \{1000, 0100, 0010, 0001\} \\ \{Y = 2\} & = \{1100, 1010, 1001, 0110, 0101, 0011\} \\ \{Y = 3\} & = \{1110, 1101, 1011, 0111\} \\ \{Y = 4\} & = \{1111\} \end{align}

In the simulation of the coin experiment, set $$n = 4$$. Run the experiment 100 times and count the number of times that the event $$\{Y = 2\}$$ occurs.

Now consider the general coin experiment with the coin tossed $$n$$ times, and let $$Y$$ denote the number of heads.

1. Give the sample space $$S$$ of the experiment in Cartesian product form, and give the cardinality of $$S$$.
2. Express $$Y$$ as a function on the sample space $$S$$.
3. Find $$\#\{Y = k\}$$ (as a subset of $$S$$) for $$k \in \{0, 1, \ldots, n\}$$
1. $$S = \{0, 1\}^n$$ and $$\#(S) = 2^n$$.
2. $$Y(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) = x_1 + x_2 + \cdots + x_n$$. The set of possible values is $$\{0, 1, \ldots, n\}$$
3. $$\#\{Y = k\} = \binom{n}{k}$$

The basic dice experiment consists of throwing $$n$$ distinct $$k$$-sided dice (with sides numbered from 1 to $$k$$) and recording the sequence of scores $$(X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n)$$. This experiment is a generic example of $$n$$ multinomial trials. The special case $$k = 6$$ corresponds to standard dice.

Consider the dice experiment with $$n = 2$$ standard dice. Let $$S$$ denote the sample space, $$A$$ the event that the first die score is 1, and $$B$$ the event that the sum of the scores is 7. Give each of the following events in the form indicated:

1. $$S$$ in Cartesian product form
2. $$A$$ in list form
3. $$B$$ in list form
4. $$A \cup B$$ in list form
5. $$A \cap B$$ in list form
6. $$A^c \cap B^c$$ in predicate form
1. $$S = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}^2$$
2. $$A = \{(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6)\}$$
3. $$B = \{(1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1)\}$$
4. $$A \cup B = \{(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1)\}$$
5. $$A \cap B = \{(1,6)\}$$
6. $$A^c \cap B^c = \{(x, y) \in S: x + y \ne 7 \text{ and } x \ne 1\}$$

In the simulation of the dice experiment, set $$n = 2$$. Run the experiment 100 times and count the number of times each event in the previous exercise occurs.

Consider the dice experiment with $$n = 2$$ standard dice, and let $$Y$$ denote the sum of the scores, $$U$$ the minimum score, and $$V$$ the maximum score.

1. Express $$Y$$ as a function on the sample space and give the set of possible values in list form.
2. Express $$U$$ as a function on the sample space and give the set of possible values in list form.
3. Express $$V$$ as a function on the sample space and give the set of possible values in list form.
4. Give the set of possible values of $$(U, V)$$ in predicate from
1. $$Y(x_1, x_2) = x_1 + x_2$$. The set of values is $$\{2, 3, \ldots, 12\}$$
2. $$U(x_1, x_2) = \min\{x_1, x_2\}$$. The set of values is $$\{1, 2, \ldots, 6\}$$
3. $$V(x_1, x_2) = \max\{x_1, x_2\}$$. The set of values is $$\{1, 2, \ldots, 6\}$$
4. $$\left\{(u, v) \in \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}^2: u \le v\right\}$$

Consider again the dice experiment with $$n = 2$$ standard dice, and let $$Y$$ denote the sum of the scores, $$U$$ the minimum score, and $$V$$ the maximum score. Give each of the following as subsets of the sample space, in list form.

1. $$\{X_1 \lt 3, X_2 \gt 4\}$$
2. $$\{Y = 7\}$$
3. $$\{U = 2\}$$
4. $$\{V = 4\}$$
5. $$\{U = V\}$$
1. $$\{(1,5), (2,5), (1,6), (2,6)\}$$
2. $$\{(1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1)\}$$
3. $$\{(2,2), (2,3), (3,2), (2,4), (4,2), (2,5), (5,2), (2,6), (6,2)\}$$
4. $$\{(4,1), (1,4), (2,4), (4,2), (4,3), (3,4), (4,4)\}$$
5. $$\{(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5), (6,6)\}$$

In the dice experiment, set $$n = 2$$. Run the experiment 100 times. Count the number of times each event in the previous exercise occurred.

In the general dice experiment with $$n$$ distinct $$k$$-sided dice, let $$Y$$ denote the sum of the scores, $$U$$ the minimum score, and $$V$$ the maximum score.

1. Give the sample space $$S$$ of the experiment and $$\#(S)$$.
2. Express $$Y$$ as a function on the sample space, and give the set of possible values in list form.
3. Express $$U$$ as a function on the sample space, and give the set of possible values in list form.
4. Express $$V$$ as a function on the sample space, and give the set of possible values in list form.
5. Give the set of possible values of $$(U, V)$$ in predicate from.
1. $$S = \{1, 2, \ldots, k\}^n$$ and $$\#(S) = k^n$$
2. $$Y(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) = x_1 + x_2 + \cdots + x_n$$. The set of possible values is $$\{n, n + 1, \ldots, n \, k\}$$
3. $$U(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) = \min\{x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n\}$$. The set of possible values is $$\{1, 2, \ldots, k\}$$.
4. $$V(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) = \max\{x_1, x_2 \ldots, x_n\}$$. The set of possible values is $$\{1, 2, \ldots, k\}$$
5. $$\left\{(u, v) \in \{1, 2, \ldots, k\}^2: u \le v\right\}$$

An experiment consists of throwing a pair of standard dice repeatedly until the sum of the two scores is either 5 or 7. Let $$A$$ denote the event that the sum is 5 rather than 7 on the final throw. Experiments of this type arise in the casino game craps.

1. Suppose that the pair of scores on each throw is recorded. Define the sample space of the experiment and describe $$A$$ as a subset of this sample space.
2. Suppose that the pair of scores on the final throw is recorded. Define the sample space of the experiment and describe $$A$$ as a subset of this sample space.

Let $$D_5 = \{(1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1)\}$$, $$D_7 = \{(1,6), (2,5), (3,4), (4,3), (5,2), (6,1)\}$$, $$D = D_5 \cup D_7$$, and $$C = D^c$$

1. $$S = D \cup (C \times D) \cup (C^2 \times D) \cup \cdots$$, $$A = D_5 \cup (C \times D_5) \cup (C^2 \times D_5) \cup \cdots$$
2. $$S = D$$, $$A = D_5$$

Suppose that 3 standard dice are rolled and the sequence of scores $$(X_1, X_2, X_3)$$ is recorded. A person pays $1 to play. If some of the dice come up 6, then the player receives her$1 back, plus $1 for each 6. Otherwise she loses her$1. Let $$W$$ denote the person's net winnings. This is the game of chuck-a-luck and is treated in more detail in the chapter on Games of Chance.

1. Give the sample space $$S$$ of the experiment in Cartesian product form.
2. Express $$W$$ as a function on $$S$$ and give the set of possible values in list form.
1. $$S = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}^3$$
2. $$W(x_1, x_2, x_3) = \bs{1}\left(x_1 = 6\right) + \bs{1}\left(x_2 = 6\right) + \bs{1}\left(x_3 = 6\right) - \bs{1}\left(x_1 \ne 6, x_2 \ne 6, x_3 \ne 6\right)$$. The set of possible values is $$\{-1, 1, 2, 3\}$$

Play the chuck-a-luck experiment a few times and see how you do.

In the die-coin experiment, a standard die is rolled and then a coin is tossed the number of times shown on the die. The sequence of coin scores $$\bs{X}$$ is recorded (0 for tails, 1 for heads). Let $$N$$ denote the die score and $$Y$$ the number of heads.

1. Give the sample space $$S$$ of the experiment in terms of Cartesain powers and find $$\#(S)$$.
2. Express $$N$$ as a function on the sample space $$S$$ and give the set of possible values in list form.
3. Express $$Y$$ as a function on the sample space $$S$$ and give the set of possible values in list form.
4. Give the event $$A$$ that all tosses result in heads in list form.
1. $$S = \bigcup_{n=1}^6 \{0, 1\}^n$$, $$\#(S) = 126$$
2. $$N(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) = n$$ for $$(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) \in S$$. The set of values is $$\{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}$$.
3. $$Y(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) = \sum_{i=1}^n x_i$$ for $$(x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n) \in S$$. The set of possible values is $$\{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}$$.
4. $$A = \{1, 11, 111, 1111, 11111, 111111\}$$

Run the simulation of the die-coin experiment 10 times. For each run, give the values of the random variables $$\bs{X}$$, $$N$$, and $$Y$$ of the previous exercise. Count the number of times the event $$A$$ occurs.

In the coin-die experiment, we have a coin and two distinct dice, say one red and one green. First the coin is tossed, and then if the result is heads the red die is thrown, while if the result is tails the green die is thrown. The coin score $$X$$ and the score of the chosen die $$Y$$ are recorded. Suppose now that the red die is a standard 6-sided die, and the green die a 4-sided die.

1. Give the sample space $$S$$ in list form.
2. Express $$X$$ as a function on the sample space.
3. Express $$Y$$ as a function on the sample space.
4. Give the event $$\{Y \ge 3\}$$ as a subset of the sample space, in list form.
1. $$\{(0,1), (0,2), (0,3), (0,4), (1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6)\}$$
2. $$X(i, j) = i$$ for $$(i, j) \in S$$
3. $$Y(i, j) = j$$ for $$(i, j) \in S$$
4. $$\{(0,3), (0,4), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6)\}$$

Run the coin-die experiment 100 times, with various types of dice.

#### Sampling Models

Recall that many random experiments can be thought of as sampling experiments. For the general finite sampling model, we start with a population $$D$$ with $$m$$ (distinct) objects. We select a sample of $$n$$ objects from the population. If the sampling is done in a random way, then we have a random experiment with the sample as the basic outcome. Thus, the sample space of the experiment is literally the space of samples; this is the historical origin of the term sample space. There are four common types of sampling from a finite population, based on the criteria of order and replacement. Recall the following facts from the section on combinatorial structures:

• If the sampling is with replacement and with regard to order, then the sample space is the Cartesian power $$D^n$$. The number of samples is $$m^n$$.
• If the sampling is without replacement and with regard to order, then the sample space is the set of all permutations of size $$n$$ from $$D$$. The number of samples is $$m^{(n)} = m (m - 1) \cdots [m - (n - 1)]$$.
• If the sampling is without replacement and without regard to order, then the sample space is the set of all combinations (or subsets) of size $$n$$ from $$D$$ . The number of samples is $$\binom{m}{n}$$.
• If the sampling is with replacement and without regard to order, then the sample space is the set of all multisets of size $$n$$ from $$D$$. The number of samples is $$\binom{m + n - 1}{n}$$.

If we sample with replacement, the sample size $$n$$ can be any positive integer. If we sample without replacement, the sample size cannot exceed the population size, so we must have $$n \in \{1, 2, \ldots, m\}$$.

The basic coin and dice experiments are examples of sampling with replacement. If we toss a coin $$n$$ times and record the sequence of scores (where as usual, 0 denotes tails and 1 denotes heads), then we generate an ordered sample of size $$n$$ with replacement from the population $$\{0, 1\}$$. If we throw $$n$$ (distinct) standard dice and record the sequence of scores, then we generate an ordered sample of size $$n$$ with replacement from the population $$\{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\}$$.

Suppose that the sampling is without replacement (the most common case). If we record the ordered sample $$\bs{X} = (X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n)$$, then the unordered sample $$\bs{W} = \{X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n\}$$ is a random variable (that is, a function of $$\bs{X}$$). On the other hand, if we just record the unordered sample $$\bs{W}$$ in the first place, then we cannot recover the ordered sample. Note also that the number of ordered samples of size $$n$$ is simply $$n!$$ times the number of unordered samples of size $$n$$. No such simple relationship exists when the sampling is with replacement. This will turn out to be an important point when we study probability models based on random samples, in the next section.

Consider a sample of size $$n = 3$$ chosen without replacement from the population $$\{a, b, c, d, e\}$$.

1. Give $$T$$, the set of unordered samples in list form.
2. Give in list form the set of all ordered samples that correspond to the unordered sample $$\{b, c, e\}$$.
3. Note that for every unordered sample, there are 6 ordered samples.
4. Give the cardinality of $$S$$, the set of ordered samples.
1. $$T = \left\{\{a,b,c\}, \{a,b,d\}, \{a,b,e\}, \{a,c,d\}, \{a,c,e\}, \{a,d,e\}, \{b,c,d\}, \{b,c,e\}, \{b,d,e\}, \{c,d,e\}\right\}$$
2. $$\{(b,c,e), (b,e,c), (c,b,e), (c,e,b), (e,b,c), (e,c,b)\}$$
3. 60

Traditionally in probability theory, an urn containing balls is often used as a metaphor for a finite population.

Suppose that an urn contains 50 (distinct) balls. A sample of 10 balls is selected from the urn. Find the number of samples in each of the following cases:

1. Ordered samples with replacement
2. Ordered samples without replacement
3. Unordered samples without replacement
4. Unordered samples with replacement
1. Ordered samples with replacement: $$97\,656\,250\,000\,000\,000$$
2. Ordered samples without replacement: $$37\,276\,043\,023\,296\,000$$
3. Unordered samples without replacement: $$10\,272\,278\,170$$
4. Unordered samples with replacement: $$62\,828\,356\,305$$

Suppose again that we have a population $$D$$ with $$m$$ (distinct) objects, but suppose now that each object is one of two types--either type 1 or type 0. Such populations are said to be dichotomous. Here are some specific examples:

• The population consists of persons, each either male or female.
• The population consists of voters, each either democrat or republican.
• The population consists of devices, each either good or defective.
• The population consists of balls, each either red or green.

Suppose that the population $$D$$ has $$r$$ type 1 objects and hence $$m - r$$ type 0 objects. Of course, we must have $$r \in \{0, 1, \ldots, m\}$$. Now suppose that we select a sample of size $$n$$ without replacement from the population. Note that this model has three parameters: the population size $$m$$, the number of type 1 objects in the population $$r$$, and the sample size $$n$$.

Let $$Y$$ denote the number of type 1 objects in the sample, a random variable for the experiment. Then

1. $$\#(Y = k) = \binom{n}{k} r^{(k)} (m - r)^{(n - k)}$$ for each $$k \in \{0, 1, \ldots, n\}$$, if the event is considered as a subset of $$S$$, the set of ordered samples.
2. $$\#(Y = k) = \binom{r}{k} \binom{m - r}{n - k}$$ for each $$k \in \{0, 1, \ldots, n\}$$, if the event is considered as a subset of $$T$$, the set of unordered samples.
3. The expression in (a) is $$n!$$ times the expression in (b), as should be the case.
Proof:

In part (a), $$\binom{n}{k}$$ is the number of ways to pick the coordinates (in the ordered sample) where the type 1 objects will go, $$r^{(k)}$$ is the number of ways to select a permutation of $$k$$ type 1 objects, and $$(m - r)^{(n-k)}$$ is the number of ways to select a permutation of $$n - k$$ type 0 objects. The result follows from the multiplication principle. In part (b), $$\binom{r}{k}$$ is the number of ways to select a combatination of $$k$$ type 1 objects and $$\binom{m - r}{n - k}$$ is the number of ways to select a combination of $$n - k$$ type 0 objects. The result again follows from the multiplication principle. Part (c) can be shown algebraically, but a combinatorial argument is better. For every combination of size $$n$$ there are $$n!$$ permutations of those objects.

A batch of 50 components consists of 40 good components and 10 defective components. A sample of 5 components is selected, without replacement. Let $$Y$$ denote the number of defectives in the sample.

1. Let $$S$$ denote the sample space of ordered samples. Find $$\#(S)$$.
2. Let $$T$$ denote the sample space of unordered samples. Find $$\#(T)$$.
3. As an event in $$T$$, find $$\#(Y = k)$$ for each $$k \in \{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5\}$$.
1. $$254\,251\,200$$
2. $$2\,118\,760$$
3. $$658\,008$$, $$913\,900$$, $$444\,600$$, $$93\,600$$, $$8\,400$$, $$252$$

Run the simulation of the ball and urn experiment 100 times for the parameter values in the last exercise: $$m = 50$$, $$r = 10$$, $$n = 5$$. Note the values of the random variable $$Y$$.

#### Cards

Recall that a standard card deck can be modeled by the product set $D = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, j, q, k\} \times \{\clubsuit, \diamondsuit, \heartsuit, \spadesuit\}$ where the first coordinate encodes the denomination or kind (ace, 2-10, jack, queen, king) and where the second coordinate encodes the suit (clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades). Sometimes we represent a card as a string rather than an ordered pair (for example $$q \heartsuit$$ rather than $$(q, \heartsuit)$$).

Card games involve sampling without replacement from the deck $$D$$, which plays the role of the population. Thus, the basic card experiment consists of dealing $$n$$ cards from a standard deck without replacement; in this special context, the sample of cards is often referred to as a hand. Just as in the general sampling model, if we record the ordered hand $$\bs{X} = (X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n)$$, then the unordered hand $$\bs{W} = \{X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n\}$$ is a random variable (that is, a function of $$\bs{X}$$). On the other hand, if we just record the unordered hand $$\bs{W}$$ in the first place, then we cannot recover the ordered hand. Finally, recall that $$n = 5$$ is the poker experiment and $$n = 13$$ is the bridge experiment. The game of poker is treated in more detail in the chapter on Games of Chance.

Suppose that a single card is dealt from a standard deck. Let $$Q$$ denote the event that the card is a queen and $$H$$ the event that the card is a heart. Give each of the following events in list form:

1. $$Q$$
2. $$H$$
3. $$Q \cup H$$
4. $$Q \cap H$$
5. $$Q \setminus H$$
1. $$Q = \{q \clubsuit, q \diamondsuit, q \heartsuit, q \spadesuit\}$$
2. $$H = \{1 \heartsuit, 2 \heartsuit, \ldots, 10 \heartsuit, j \heartsuit, q \heartsuit, k \heartsuit\}$$
3. $$Q \cup H = \{1 \heartsuit, 2 \heartsuit, \ldots, 10 \heartsuit, j \heartsuit, q \heartsuit, k \heartsuit, q \clubsuit, q \diamondsuit, q \spadesuit\}$$
4. $$Q \cap H = \{q \heartsuit\}$$
5. $$Q \setminus H = \{q \clubsuit, q \diamondsuit, q \spadesuit\}$$

In the card experiment, set $$n = 1$$. Run the experiment 100 times and count the number of times each event in the previous exercise occurs.

Suppose that two cards are dealt from a standard deck and the sequence of cards recorded. Let $$Q_i$$ denote the event that the $$i$$th card is a queen and $$H_i$$ the event that the $$i$$th card is a heart, for $$i \in \{1, 2\}$$. Find the number of outcomes in each of the following events:

1. $$S$$
2. $$H_1$$
3. $$H_2$$
4. $$H_1 \cap H_2$$
5. $$Q_1 \cap H_1$$
6. $$Q_1 \cap H_2$$
7. $$H_1 \cup H_2$$
1. 2652
2. 663
3. 663
4. 156
5. 51
6. 51
7. 1170

Consider the general card experiment in which $$n$$ cards are dealt from a standard deck, and the ordered hand $$\bs{X}$$ is recorded.

1. Give cardinality of the sample space $$S$$, the set of values of the ordered hand $$\bs{X}$$.
2. Give the cardinality of the set $$T$$, the set of possible values of the unordered hand $$\bs{W}$$.
3. How many ordered hands correspond to a given unordered hand?
4. Explicitly compute the numbers in (a) and (b) when $$n = 5$$ (poker).
5. Explicitly compute the numbers in (a) and (b) when $$n = 13$$ (bridge).
1. $$\#(S) = 52^{(n)}$$
2. $$\#(T) = \binom{52}{n}$$
3. $$n!$$
4. $$311\,875\,200$$, $$2\,598\,960$$
5. $$3\,954\,242\,643\,911\,239\,680\,000$$, $$635\,013\,559\,600$$

Consider the bridge experiment of dealing 13 cards from a deck and recording the unordered hand. In the most common point counting system, an ace is worth 4 points, a king 3 points, a queen 2 points, and a jack 1 point. The other cards are worth 0 points. Let $$V$$ denote the point value of the hand.

1. Find the set of possible values of $$V$$.
2. Find the cardinality of the event $$\{V = 0\}$$ as a subset of the sample space.
1. $$\{0, 1, \ldots, 37\}$$
2. $$\#\{V = 0\} = 2\,310\,789\,600$$

In the card experiment, set $$n = 13$$ and run the experiment 100 times. For each run, compute the value of each of the random variable $$V$$ in the previous exercise.

Consider the poker experiment of dealing 5 cards from a deck and recording the unordered hand. Find the cardinality of each of the events below, as a subset of the sample space.

1. $$A$$: the event that the hand is a full house (3 cards of one kind and 2 of another kind).
2. $$B$$: the event that the hand has 4 of a kind (4 cards of one kind and 1 of another kind).
3. $$C$$: the event that all cards in the hand are in the same suit (the hand is a flush or a straight flush).
1. $$\#(A) = 3744$$
2. $$\#(B) = 624$$
3. $$\#(C) = 5148$$

Run the poker experiment 1000 times. Note the number of times that the events $$A$$, $$B$$, and $$C$$ in the previous exercise occurred.

Consider the bridge experiment of dealing 13 cards from a standard deck, and recording the unordered hand. Let $$Y$$ denote the number of hearts in the hand and let $$Z$$ denote the number of queens in the hand.

1. Find the cardinality of the event $$\{Y = y\}$$ as a subset of the sample space for each $$y \in \{0, 1, \ldots, 13\}$$.
2. Find the cardinality of the event $$\{Z = z\}$$ as a subset of the sample space for each $$z \in \{0, 1, 2, 3, 4\}$$.
1. $$\#(Y = y) = \binom{13}{y} \binom{39}{13 - y}$$ for $$y \in \{0, 1, \ldots, 13\}$$
2. $$\#(Z = z) = \binom{4}{z} \binom{48}{4 - z}$$ for $$z \in \{0, 1, 2, 3, 4\}$$

#### Geometric Models

In the experiments that we have considered so far, the sample spaces have all been discrete (that is, either finite or countably infinite). In this subsection, we consider uncountable sample spaces $$S \subset \R^n$$ that are continuous in a sense that we will make clear later. The experiments we consider are sometimes referred to as geometric models because they involve selecting a point at random from a Euclidean set.

We first consider Buffon's coin experiment, which consists of tossing a coin with radius $$r \le \frac{1}{2}$$ randomly on a floor covered with square tiles of side length 1. The coordinates $$(X, Y)$$ of the center of the coin are recorded relative to axes through the center of the square in which the coin lands. Buffon's experiments are studied in more detail in the chapter on Geometric Models and are named for Compte de Buffon

In Buffon's coin experiment, let $$A$$ denote the event that the coin does not touch the sides of the square and let $$Z$$ denote the distance form the center of the coin to the center of the square.

1. Describe the sample space $$S$$ mathematically.
2. Describe $$A$$ as a subset of $$S$$.
3. Describe $$A^c$$ as a subset of $$S$$.
4. Express $$Z$$ as a function on $$S$$.
5. Express the event $$\{X \lt Y\}$$ as a subset of $$S$$.
6. Express the event $$\left\{Z \leq \frac{1}{2}\right\}$$ as a subset of $$S$$.
1. $$S = \left[-\frac{1}{2}, \frac{1}{2}\right]^2$$
2. $$A = \left[r - \frac{1}{2}, \frac{1}{2} - r\right]^2$$
3. $$A^c = \left\{(x, y) \in S: x \lt r - \frac{1}{2} \text{ or } x \gt \frac{1}{2} - r \text{ or } y \lt r - \frac{1}{2} \text{ or } y \gt \frac{1}{2} - r\right\}$$
4. $$Z(x, y) = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2}$$ for $$(x, y) \in S$$
5. $$\{X \lt Y\} = \{(x, y) \in S: x \lt y\}$$
6. $$\{Z \lt \frac{1}{2}\} = \left\{(x, y) \in S: x^2 + y^2 \lt \frac{1}{4}\right\}$$

Run Buffon's coin experiment 100 times with $$r = 0.2$$. For each run, note whether event $$A$$ occurs and compute the value of random variable $$Z$$.

A point $$(X, Y)$$ is chosen at random in the circular region of radius 1 in $$\R^2$$ centered at the origin. Let $$S$$ denote the sample space. Let $$A$$ denote the event that the point is in the inscribed square region centered at the origin, with sides parallel to the coordinate axes. Let $$B$$ denote the event that the point is in the inscribed square with vertices $$(\pm 1, 0)$$, $$(0, \pm 1)$$.

1. Describe $$S$$ mathematically and sketch the set.
2. Describe $$A$$ mathematically and sketch the set.
3. Describe $$B$$ mathematically and sketch the set.
4. Sketch $$A \cup B$$
5. Sketch $$A \cap B$$
6. Sketch $$A \cap B^c$$
1. $$S = \left\{(x, y): x^2 + y^2 \le 1\right\}$$
2. $$A = \left\{(x, y): -\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \le x \le \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}, -\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \le x \le \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\right\}$$
3. $$B = \left\{(x, y) \in S: -1 \le \left|x + y\right| \le 1, -1 \le \left|y - x\right| \le 1\right\}$$

#### Reliability

In the simple model of structural reliability, a system is composed of $$n$$ components, each of which is either working or failed. The state of component $$i$$ is an indicator random variable $$X_i$$, where 1 means working and 0 means failure. Thus, $$\bs{X} = (X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n)$$ is a vector of indicator random variables that specifies the states of all of the components, and therefore the sample space of the experiment is $$\{0, 1\}^n$$. The system as a whole is also either working or failed, depending only on the states of the components and how the components are connected together. Thus, the state of the system is an indicator random variable defined on this state space: $$Y = Y(\bs{X})$$. The state of the system (working or failed) as a function of the states of the components is the structure function.

A series system is working if and only if each component is working. The state of the system is $U = X_1 X_2 \cdots X_n = \min\left\{X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n\right\}$

A parallel system is working if and only if at least one component is working. The state of the system is $V = 1 - \left(1 - X_1\right)\left(1 - X_2\right) \cdots \left(1 - X_n\right) = \max\left\{X_1, X_2, \ldots, X_n\right\}$

More generally, a $$k$$ out of $$n$$ system is working if and only if at least $$k$$ of the $$n$$ components are working. Note that a parallel system is a 1 out of $$n$$ system and a series system is an $$n$$ out of $$n$$ system. A $$k$$ out of $$2 k$$ system is a majority rules system.

The state of the $$k$$ out of $$n$$ system is given by the formula below. The structure function can also be expressed as a polynomial in the variables. $U_{n,k} = 1 \text{ if and only if } \sum_{i = 1}^n X_i \ge k$

Explicitly give the state of the $$k$$ out of 3 system, as a polynomial function of the component states $$(X_1, X_2, X_3)$$, for each $$k \in \{1, 2, 3\}$$.

1. $$U_{3,1} = X_1 + X_2 + X_3 - X_1 X_2 - X_1 X_3 - X_2 X_3 + X_1 X_2 X_3$$
2. $$U_{3,2} = X_1 X_2 + X_1 X_3 + X_2 X_3 - 2 \, X_1 X_2 X_3$$
3. $$U_{3,3} = X_1 X_2 X_3$$

In some cases, the system can be represented as a graph or network. The edges represent the components and the vertices the connections between the components. The system functions if and only if there is a working path between two designated vertices, which we will denote by $$a$$ and $$b$$.

Find the state of the Wheatstone bridge network shown below, as a function of the component states. The network is named for Charles Wheatstone.

$$Y = X_3 (X_1 + X_2 - X_1 X_2)(X_4 + X_5 - X_4 X_5) + (1 - X_3)(X_1 X_ 4 + X_2 X_5 - X_1 X_2 X_4 X_5)$$. Note that if component 3 works, then the system works if and only if component 1 or 2 works, and component 4 or 5 works. On the other hand, if component 3 does not work, then the system works if and only if components 1 and 4 work, or components 2 and 5 work.

Not every function $$s$$ from $$\{0, 1\}^n$$ into $$\{0, 1\}$$ makes sense as a structure function. Explain why the following properties might be desirable:

1. $$s(0, 0, \ldots, 0) = 0$$ and $$s(1, 1, \ldots, 1) = 1$$
2. $$s$$ is an increasing function, where $$\{0, 1\}$$ is given the ordinary order and $$\{0, 1\}^n$$ the corresponding product order.
3. For each $$i \in \{1, 2, \ldots, n\}$$, there exist $$\bs{x}$$ and $$\bs{y}$$ in $$\{0, 1\}^n$$ all of whose coordinates agree, except $$x_i = 0$$ and $$y_i = 1$$, and $$s(\bs{x}) = 0$$ while $$s(\bs{y}) = 1$$.
1. This means that if all components have failed then the system has failed, and if all components are working then the system is working.
2. This means that if a particular component is changed from failed to working, then the system may also go from failed to working, but not from working to failed. That is, the system can only improve.
3. This means that every component is relevant to the system, that is, there exists a configuration in which changing component $$i$$ from failed to working changes the system from failed to working.

The model just discussed is a static model. We can extend it to a dynamic model by assuming that component $$i$$ is initially working, but has a random time to failure $$T_i$$, taking values in $$[0, \infty)$$, for each $$i \in \{1, 2, \ldots, n\}$$. Thus, the basic outcome of the experiment is the random vector of failure times: $$(T_1, T_2, \ldots, T_n)$$ and the sample space of the experiment is $$[0, \infty)^n$$.

Consider the dynamic reliability model for a system with structure function $$s$$ (valid in the sense of the previous exercise).

1. The state of component $$i$$ at time $$t \ge 0$$ is $$X_i(t) = \bs{1}\left(T_i \gt t\right)$$.
2. The state of the system at time $$t$$ is $$X(t) = s\left[X_1(t), X_2(t), \ldots, X_n(t)\right]$$.
3. The time to failure of the system is $$T = \min\{t \ge 0: X(t) = 0\}$$.

Suppose that we have two devices and that we record $$(X, Y)$$, where $$X$$ is the failure time of device 1 and $$Y$$ is the failure time of device 2. Both variables take values in the interval $$[0, \infty)$$, where the units are in hundreds of hours. Sketch each of the following events:

1. The sample space $$S$$
2. $$\{X \lt Y\}$$
3. $$\{X + Y \gt 2\}$$

#### Genetics

Please refer to the discussion of genetics in the section on random experiments if you need to review some of the definitions in this section.

Recall first that the ABO blood type in humans is determined by three alleles: $$a$$, $$b$$, and $$o$$. Furthermore, $$o$$ is recessive and $$a$$ and $$b$$ are co-dominant.

Suppose that a person is chosen at random and his genotype is recorded. Give each of the following in list form.

1. The sample space S
2. The event that the person is type $$A$$
3. The event that the person is type $$B$$
4. The event that the person is type $$AB$$
5. The event that the person is type $$O$$
1. $$S = \{aa, ab, ao, bb, bo, oo\}$$
2. $$A = \{aa, ao\}$$
3. $$B = \{bb, bo\}$$
4. $$AB = \{ab\}$$
5. $$O = \{oo\}$$

Suppose next that pod color in certain type of pea plant is determined by a gene with two alleles: $$g$$ for green and $$y$$ for yellow, and that $$g$$ is dominant.

Suppose that $$n$$ (distinct) pea plants are collected and the sequence of pod color genotypes is recorded.

1. Give the sample space $$S$$ of the experiment in Cartesian product form, and find $$\#(S)$$.
2. Let $$N$$ denote the number of plants with green pods. Find $$\#(N = k)$$ (as a subset of the sample space) for each $$k \in \{0, 1, \ldots, n\}$$.
1. $$S = \{gg, gy, yy\}^n$$, $$\#(S) = 3^n$$
2. $$\binom{n}{k} 2^k$$

Next consider a sex-linked hereditary disorder in humans (such as colorblindness or hemophilia). Let $$h$$ denote the healthy allele and $$d$$ the defective allele for the gene linked to the disorder. Recall that $$d$$ is recessive for women.

Suppose that $$n$$ women are sampled and the sequence of genotypes is recorded.

1. Give the sample space $$S$$ of the experiment in Cartesian product form, and find $$\#(S)$$.
2. Let $$N$$ denote the number of women who are completely healthy (genotype $$hh$$). Find $$\#(N = k)$$ (as a subset of the sample space) for each $$k \in \{0, 1, \ldots, n\}$$.
1. $$S = \{hh, hd, dd\}^n$$, $$\#(S) = 3^n$$
2. $$\binom{n}{k} 2^{n-k}$$

The emission of elementary particles from a sample of radioactive material occurs in a random way. Suppose that the time of emission of the $$i$$th particle is a random variable $$T_i$$ taking values in $$(0, \infty)$$. If we measure these arrival times, then basic outcome vector is $$(T_1, T_2, \ldots)$$ and the sample space of the experiment is $$S = \{(t_1, t_2, \ldots): 0 \lt t_1 \lt t_2 \lt \cdots\}$$.

Run the simulation of the gamma experiment in single-step mode for different values of the parameters. Observe the arrival times.

Now let $$N_t$$ denote the number of emissions in the interval $$(0, t]$$. Then

1. $$N_t = \max\left\{n \in \N_+: T_n \le t\right\}$$.
2. $$N_t \ge n$$ if and only if $$T_n \le t$$.

Run the simulation of the Poisson experiment in single-step mode for different parameter values. Observe the arrivals in the specified time interval.

#### Statistical Experiments

In the basic cicada experiment, a cicada in the Middle Tennessee area is captured and the following measurements recorded: body weight (in grams), wing length, wing width, and body length (in millimeters), species type, and gender. The cicada data set gives the results of 104 repetitions of this experiment.

1. Define a sample space for the basic experiment.
2. Let $$F$$ be the event that a cicada is female. Describe $$F$$ as a subset of the sample space.
3. Determine whether $$F$$ occurs for each cicada in the data set.
4. Let $$V$$ denote the ratio of wing length to wing width. Compute $$V$$ for each cicada.
5. Give the sample space for the compound experiment that consists of 104 repetitions of the basic experiment.

For gender, let 0 denote female and 1 male, for species, let 1 denote tredecula, 2 tredecim, and 3 tredecassini.

1. $$S = (0, \infty)^4 \times \{0, 1\} \times \{1, 2, 3\}$$
2. $$F = \{(x_1, x_2, x_3, x_4, y, z) \in S: y = 0\}$$
3. $$S^{104}$$ where $$S$$ is given in (a).

In the basic M&M experiment, a bag of M&Ms (of a specified size) is purchased and the following measurements recorded: the number of red, green, blue, yellow, orange, and brown candies, and the net weight (in grams). The M&M data set gives the results of 30 repetitions of this experiment.

1. Define a sample space for the basic experiment.
2. Let $$A$$ be the event that a bag contains at least 57 candies. Describe $$A$$ as a subset of the sample space.
3. Determine whether $$A$$ occurs for each bag in the data set.
4. Let $$N$$ denote the total number of candies. Compute $$N$$ for each bag in the data set.
5. Give the sample space for the compound experiment that consists of 30 repetitions of the basic experiment.
1. $$S = \N^6 \times (0, \infty)$$
2. $$A = \{(n_1, n_2, n_3, n_4, n_5, n_6, w) \in S: n_1 + n_2 + \cdots + n_6 \gt 57\}$$
3. $$S^{30}$$ where $$S$$ is given in (a).